Future Tense

Singular Number -- Plural Number
1st Person -- I shall/will love -- We shall/will love
2nd person -- You will love -- You will love
3rd Person -- He will love -- They will love

Past Tense

Singular Number -- Plural Number
1st Person -- I loved -- We loved
2nd person -- You loved -- You loved
3rd Person -- He loved -- They loved

Present Tense

Singular Number -- Plural Number
1st Person -- I love -- We love
2nd person -- You love -- You love
3rd Person -- He loves -- They love

TENCES: INTRODUCTION

Read the following sentences:
1. I write this letter to please you.
2. I wrote the letter in his very presence.
3. I shall write another letter tomorrow.
In sentence 1, the Verb write refers to present time.
In sentence 2, the Verb wrote refers to past time.
In sentence 3, the Verb shall write refers to future time.
Thus a Verb may refer
(1) to present time,
(2) to past time, or
(3) to future time.
 A Verb that refers to present time is said to be in the Present Tense; as,
I write.
I love.
[The word tense comes from the Latin tempus, time.]

A Verb that refers to past time is said to be in the Past Tense; as,
I wrote,
I loved,
A Verb that refers to future time is said to be in the Future Tense
I shall write,
I shall love.
212. Thus there are three main Tenses -
The Present,
The Past,
The Future.
The Tense of a Verb shows the time of an action or event.
Note : Sometimes a past tense may refer to present time, and a present tense may express
future time, as:

THE PHRASE AND THE CLAUSE

Examine the group of words “in a corner”. It makes sense, but not complete sense.
Such a group of words, which makes sense, but not complete sense, is called a Phrase.
In the following sentences, the groups of words in italics are Phrases:
The sun rises in the east.
Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.
There came a giant to my door.

It was a sunset of great beauty.
The tops of the mountains were covered with snow.
Show me how to do it.
7. Examine the groups of words in italics in the following sentences:
He has a chain of gold.
He has a chain which is made of gold.
We recognize the first group of words as a Phrase.
The second group of words, unlike the Phrase of gold, contains a Subject (which) and a
Predicate (is made of gold).
Such a group of words which forms part of a sentence, and contains a Subject and a
Predicate, is called a Clause.
In the following sentences, the groups of words in italics are Clauses:
People who pay their debts are trusted.
We cannot start while it is raining.
I think that, you have made a mistake.

Noun Clauses

Examine the groups of words in italics in the following sentences:-
1. I expect to get a prize. -- [Expect what?]
2. I expect that I shall get a prize.-- [Expect what?]
The first group of words, to get a prize, does not contain a Subject and a Predicate of its
own. It is therefore a phrase. This phrase is object of the verb expect and hence does the
work of a Noun. It is therefore a Noun Phrase.
The second group of words, that I shall get a prize, contains a Subject and a Predicate of
its own. It is therefore a clause. This Clause is the object of the verb expect and so does
the work of a Noun. We therefore call it a Noun Clause,
Now examine the sentence.
That you have come pleases me.
Here the Clause, That you have come, is the Subject of the verb pleases.
It therefore does the work of a Noun, and is what we call a Noun Clause.
Def :- A Noun Clause is a group of words which contains a Subject and a Predicate of its
own, and does the work of a Noun.

Adjective Clauses

Look at the groups of words in italics in the following sentences:-
1. The umbrella with a broken handle is mine. [Which umbrella?]
2. The umbrella which has a broken handle is mine. [Which umbrella?]
The first group of words, with a broken handle, describes the umbrella; that is, it qualifies
the noun umbrella, and does the work of an Adjective. It is what we call an Adjective
phrase.
The second group of words which has a broken handle, also describes the umbrella and
so does the work of an Adjective. But because it contains a Subject and a Predicate of its
own, it is called an Adjective Clause.
Defination:- An Adjective Clause is a group of words which contains a Subject and a Predicate
of its own, and does the work of an Adjective.

THE INTERJECTION

Examine the following sentences:-
Hello! What are you doing there?
Alas! He is dead.
Hurrah! We have won the game.
Ah! Have they gone?
Oh! I got such a fright.
Hush! Don't make a noise.
Such words as Hello! Alas! Hurrah! Ah! etc. are called Interjections.
They are used to express some sudden feeling or emotion. It will be noticed that they are
not grammatically related to the other words in a sentence.
Def:- An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling or emotion.
Interjections may express-
(1) Joy; as, Hurrah! Huzza!
(2) Grief; as, alas!
(3) Surprise; as, ha! What!
(4)Approval; as, bravo!
419. Certain groups of words are also used to express some sudden feeling or emotion;
as,
Ah me! For shame! Well done! Good gracious!

Indicative Mood

The Indicative Mood is used:
(1) To make a statement of fact; as,
Rama goes to school daily.
We are taught Arithmetic.
He writes legibly.
Napoleon died at St. Helena.
The child is alive.
(2) To ask a question; as,
Have you found your book?
Are you well?
In each of these sentences the Verb in italics is said to be in the Indicative Mood.

MOOD

Def- Mood is the mode or manner in which the action denoted by the Verb is represented.

The simplest use of a Verb is to make a statement of fact or ask a question ; as,
I write to my brother every week.
Who wrote that letter?
But a Verb may also be used to express a command; as.
Write neatly.
Or a Verb may be used to express a mere supposition ; as,
If I were you, I would not do it.
These different modes or manners in which a Verb may be used to express an action are
called Moods. (Lat. modus, manner.)

There are three Moods in English:-
Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

1. Rama helps Hari.
2. Hari is helped by Rama.
It will be seen that these two sentences express the same meaning.
But in sentence I, the form of the Verb shows that the person denoted by the subject does
something.
Rama (the person denoted by the subject) does something.
The Verb helps is said to be in the Active Voice.
In sentence 2, the form of the Verb shows that something is done to the person denoted
by the Subject.
Something is done to Hari (the person denoted by the Subject.)
The Verb helped is said to be in the Passive Voice.

Def.- A verb is in the Active Voice when its form shows (as in sentence 1) that the person
or thing denoted by the Subject does something ; or, in other words, is the doer of the
action.
The Active Voice is so called because the person denoted by the Subject acts.
Def.- A Verb is in the Passive Voice when its form shows (as in sentence 2) that
something is done to the person or thing denoted by the Subject.

Rules for changing Direct Speech into Indirect

When the reporting or principal verb is in the Past Tense, all Present tenses of the
Direct are changed into the corresponding Past Tenses. Thus:-
(a) A simple present becomes a simple past.
Direct. -- He said, “I am unwell.”
Indirect. -- He said (that) he was unwell.
(b) A present continuous becomes a past continuous.
Direct. -- He said, “My master is writing letters.”
Indirect. -- He said (that) his master was writing letters.
(c) A present perfect becomes a past perfect.
Direct. -- He said, “I have passed the examination.”
Indirect. -- He said (that) he had passed the examination.
Note:- The shall of the Future Tense is changed into should. The will of the Future Tense
is changed into would or should. As a rule, the simple past in the Direct becomes the past
perfect in the Indirect.
Direct. -- He said, “The horse died in the night.”
Indirect. -- He said that the horse had died in the night.
99A. The tenses may not change if the statement is still relevant or if it is a universal
truth. We can often choose whether to keep the original tenses or change them.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

We may report the words of a speaker in two ways:-
(i) We may quote his actual words. This is called Direct Speech.
(ii) We may report what he said without quoting his exact words. This is called Indirect
(or Reported) Speech.
Direct. -- Rama said. “I am very busy now.”
Indirect. -- Rama said that he was very busy then.
It will be noticed that in Direct Speech, we use inverted commas to mark off the exact
words of the speaker. In Indirect Speech we do not. It will be further noticed that in
changing the above Direct Speech into Indirect certain changes have been made. Thus:
(i) We have used the conjunction that before the Indirect statement.(The that is often
omitted especially in spoken English)
(ii) The pronoun I is changed to he. (The Pronoun is changed in Person.)
(iii) The verb am is changed to was. (Present Tense is changed to Past.)
(iv) The adverb now is changed to then.

Conversion of Complex sentences to Simple sentences

Complex. -- He said that he was innocent.
Simple. -- He declared his innocence.
Complex. -- That you are drunk aggravates your offence.
Simple. -- Your drunkenness aggravates your offence.
Complex. -- Tell me where you live
Simple. -- Tell me your address.
Complex. - It is a pity that we should have to undergo this disgrace.
Simple. -- Our having to undergo this disgrace is a pity.
Complex. -- It is proclaimed that all men found with arms will be shot.
Simple. -- According to the proclamation all men found with arms will be shot
Complex. -- He remarked how impudent the boy was.
Simple. -- He remarked on the boy's impudence,
Complex. -- How long I shall stay is doubtful.
Simple. -- The duration of my stay is doubtful.
Complex. -- Except that he hurt his hand, he was lucky.
Simple. -- Except for the hurt to his hand, he was lucky.

Conversion of Simple sentences to Complex

A Simple sentence can be converted to a Complex sentence by expanding a word or
phrase into a Subordinate clause.
This clause may be a Noun, Adjective or Adverb clause.
Simple. -- He confessed his crime.
Complex. -- He confessed that he was guilty.
Simple. -- His silence proves his guilt.
Complex. -- The fact that he is silent proves his guilt.
Simple. -- He bought his uncle's library.
Complex. -- He bought the library which belonged to his uncle.

Conversion of Compound (Double) sentences to Simple sentences

Compound. -- He finished his exercise and put away his books.
Simple. -- Having finished his exercise, he put away his books.
Compound. -- Not only did his father give him money, but his mother too.
Simple. -- Besides his father giving him money, his mother also did the same.
Compound. -- He was a mere boy but he offered to fight the giant.
Simple. -- In spite of his being a, mere boy, he offered to fight the giant.
Compound. -- He must not be late, or he will be punished.
Simple. -- In the event of his being late, he will be punished.
Compound. -- You must either pay the bill at once or return the goods.
Simple. -- Failing prompt payment, the goods must be returned by you.
Compound. The men endured all the horrors of the campaign and not one of them
complained at all.
Simple. The men endured all the horrors of the campaign without one of them making
any complaint.
Compound. -- We must eat, or we cannot live.
Simple. -- We must eat to live.

Conversion of Simple sentences to Compound (Double) sentences

A Simple sentence can be converted into a Compound one by enlarging a word or a
phrase into a Co-ordinate clause.
Simple. -- He must work very hard to make up for the lost time.
Compound. -- He must work very hard and make up for the lost time.
Simple. -- To his eternal disgrace, he betrayed his country.
Compound. -- He betrayed his country, and this was to his eternal disgrace.
Simple. -- Besides robbing the poor child, he also murdered her.
Compound. -- He not only robbed the poor child but also murdered her.
Simple. -- He must work very hard to win the first prize.
Compound. -- He must work very hard, or he will not win the first prize.
Simple. -- He must not attempt to escape, on pain of death.
Compound. -- He must not attempt to escape, or he will be put to death.
Simple. -- Notwithstanding his hard work, he did not succeed.
Compound. -- He worked hard, yet did not succeed.
Simple. -- Owing lo ill-luck, he met with a bad accident on the eve of his examination.
Compound. -- He was unlucky and therefore met with a bad accident on the eve of his
examination.
Simple. -- The teacher punished the boy for disobedience.
Compound. -- The boy was disobedient, and so the teacher punished him.

Interchange of Exclamatory and Assertive Sentences

1. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank!
The moonlight very sweetly sleeps upon this bank.
2. If only I were young again!
I wish I were young again.
3. Alas that youth should pass away!
It is sad to think that youth should pass away.
4. How beautiful is night!
Night is very beautiful.
5. To think of our meeting here!
[Or] That we should meet here !
It is strange that we should meet here.

Interchange of Interrogative and Assertive Sentences

1. What though we happen to be late?
It does not matter much though we happen to be late.
2. Why waste time in reading trash?
It is extremely foolish to waste time in reading trash.
3. Were we sent into the world simply to make money?
We were not sent into the world simply to make money.
4. How can man die better than facing fearful odds?
Man cannot die better than facing fearful odds.
5. When can their glory fade?
Their glory can never fade.
6. Was he not a villain to do such a deed?
He was a villain to do such a deed.

Interchange of Affirmative and Negative Sentences

1. Brutus loved Caesar.
Brutus was not without love for Caesar.
2. I was doubtful whether it was you.
I was not sure that it was you.
3. Old fools surpass all other fools in folly.
There's no fool like an old fool.
4. He is greater than me.
I am not so great as him.
5. Alfred was the best king that ever reigned in England.
No other king as good as Alfred ever reigned in England.

Interchange of Active and Passive Voice

A sentence in the Active form can be changed into the Passive form, and vice versa :-
Active. Brutus stabbed Caesar.
Passive. -- Caesar was stabbed by Brutus.
Active. -- The people will make him President.
Passive. -- He will be made President by the people.
Active. -- Who taught you grammar?
Passive. -- By whom were you taught grammar?/Who were you taught grammar by? --
By whom was grammar taught to you ?
Active. -- The Governor gave him a reward.
Passive. -- He was given a reward by the Governor.
A reward was given him by the Governor.
Active. -- The Romans expected to conquer Carthage.
Passive. -- It was expected by the Romans that they would conquer Carthage.
Active. -- One should keep one's, promises.
Passive. -- Promises should be kept.
Active. -- I know her.
Passive. -- She is known to me.
Active. -- My captors were taking me to prison.
Passive. -- I was being taken to prison by my captors.
Active. -- His behaviour vexes me sometimes.
Passive. -- I am sometimes vexed at his behaviour.
Active. -- It is time to shut up the shop.
Passive. -- It is time for the shop to be shut up.
Active. -- The audience loudly cheered the Mayor's speech.
Passive. -- The Mayor's speech was loudly cheered.
Note:- Whenever it is evident who the agent (i.e., doer of the action) is, it is unnecessary
to mention him in the passive form, and this omission gives a neater turn to the sentence.
Thus in the last example the agent is not mentioned in the passive form because only
those who heard the speech could have cheered it.

Interchange of the Degrees of Comparison

Positive. -- I am as strong as him.
Comparative. -- He is not stronger than me.
Positive. --This razor is not as sharp as that one.
Comparative. -- That razor is sharper than this one.
Positive. -- Few historians write as interestingly as Joshi.
Comparative. -- Joshi writes more interestingly than most historians.
Positive. -- No other metal is as useful as iron.
Comparative. -- Iron is more useful than any other metal.
Superlative. -- Iron is the most useful of all metals.
Superlative. -- India is the largest democracy in the world.
Comparative. -- India is larger than any other democracy in the world.
Positive. -- No other democracy in the world is as large as India.
Superlative. -- Mumbai is one of the richest cities in India.
Comparative. -- Mumbai is richer than most other cities in India.
Positive. -- Very few cities in India are as rich as Mumbai.
Superlative. -- Usha Kiran is not the tallest of all the buildings in the city.
Comparative. -- Usha Kiran is not taller than some other buildings in the city.
OR
Some other buildings in the city are perhaps tatter than Usha Kiran.
positive. -- Some other buildings in the city are at least as tall as Usha Kiran.
OR
Usha Kiran is perhaps not as tall as some other buildings in the city.
Superlative. -- Naomi is not one of the cleverest girls in the class.
Comparative. -- Some girls of the class are cleverer than Naomi,.
OR
Naomi is less clever than some other girls of the class.
Positive. -- Naomi is not so clever as some other girls of the class.

TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES

The student has already learnt that a phrase can be expanded into a clause and a
clause contracted into a phrase; that is, the form of a sentence can be changed without
changing the meaning. In this chapter we shall show some other ways of changing the
form of a sentence.
The conversion or transformation of sentences is an excellent exercise as it teaches
variety of expression in writing English.

Adverb Clauses of Supposition or Concession

Adverb Clauses of Supposition or Concession are introduced by the Subordinating
Conjunctions though, although, even if.
Though I am poor I am honest.
Though the heavens fall, justice must be done.
Though He slay me yet will I love Him.
He set sail though the storm threatened.
Although troops had marched all day they fought bravely all night.
Although I forbade this you have done it.
I shall be able to get in although I have no ticket.
Even if it rains I shall come.

Adverb Clauses of Comparison

Adverb Clauses of Comparison are of two kinds:-
(i) Adverb Clauses of Comparison of Degree.
(ii) Adverb Clauses of Comparison of Manner.
54. Adverb Clauses of Comparison of Degree are introduced by the Subordinating
Conjunction than, or by the Relative Adverb as;
as,
He is older than he looks.
No one can run faster than Rama.
It is later than I thought.
You must work harder than I do.
He is as stupid as he is lazy.
He is not so clever as you think.
Note:- The verb of the Adverb Clause of Comparison of Degree is often understood and
not expressed ; as,
Nobody knows it better than I [do].
Few are better leaders than he [is],
You like curry better than I [like it].
It will happen as sure as death [is sure].
Not many know the truth of this better than you [know it].

Adverb Clauses of Result or Consequence

Adverb Clauses of Result or Consequence are introduced by the Subordinating
Conjunction that. Frequently so or such precedes it in the Principal Clause.
They fought so bravely that the enemies were driven off. / So bravely did they fight that
the enemy were driven off. (Literary)
He is such a good man that all respect him.
So great a fire raged that London was burnt down.
The Romans built in such a way that their walls are still standings.
He spoke in such a low voice that few could hear him.
So terrible a disease broke out that very few of the people survived.
Very heavy rain fell so that the rivers were soon in flood.
Laws were quickly passed so that this abuse was checked.
He behaved in such a manner that his reputation suffered.

Adverb Clauses of Condition

Adverb Clauses of Condition are introduced by the Subordinating Conjunctions if
whether, unless.

If I like it, I shall buy it. Come if you wish to.
If it rains we shall stay al home.
If you have tears, prepare to shed them now.
You must go whether you hear from him or not.
Whether the Rajah gives him blows or money, he will speak the truth.
Unless you work harder you will fail.
I shan't pay it unless he sends me the bill again.
I will forgive you on condition that you do not repeat the offence.
Note :- Sometimes the Subordinating Conjunction is omitted in Adverb Clauses of
Condition; as,

Adverb Clauses of Cause or Reason

Adverb Clauses of Cause or Reason are introduced by the Subordinating conjunctions
because, as, since, that.
Because I like you, I shall help you.
I did it because I wanted to.
I did not buy it because I did not like the look of it.
He thinks, because he is rich, he can buy justice.
Since you are so clever you will be able to explain this.
Since your father is not at home, I will ask you to take the message.
Since you swear to serve me faithfully, I will employ you.
I am glad that you like it.
He was very pleased that you have passed.
As he was not there, I spoke to his brother.

Adverb Clauses of Purpose

Adverb clauses of purpose are introduced by the subordinating conjunctions so that,
in order that and lest. (In order that and lest are used in a formal style.)
I will give you a map so that you can find the way.
We eat so that we may live.
The UNO was formed in order that countries might discuss world problems better.
He was extra polite to his superiors lest something adverse should be written into his
records.
'Sleep not lest your Lord come in the night.'
The conjunction that occurred in older English:
He drew the sword that he might defend himself.
'Come hither that I may bless thee.'

Adverb Clauses of Place

Adverb Clauses of Place are introduced by the Subordinating Conjunctions where and
whereas,
I have put it where I can find it again.
They can stay where they are.

Where you live I will live.
He led the caravan wherever he wanted to go.
You can put it wherever you like.
Let him be arrested wherever he may be found.
In older English whence and whither were also used.
Go quickly whence you came.
The wind bloweth whither it listeth.

Adverb Clauses of time

Adverb Clauses of time are introduced by the Subordinating Conjunctions whenever,
while, after, before, since, as, etc.
When you have finished your work you may go home.
I will do it when I think fit.
Don't talk while she is singing.
While I command this ship there will be good discipline.
He came after night had fallen.
After the law had been passed this form of crime ceased.
Do it before you forget.
Before you go bring me some water.

ADVERB CLAUSES

Adverb clauses are of many kinds and may be classified as Adverb Clauses of:-
1. Time
2. Place.
3. Purpose.
4. Cause.
5. Condition.
6. Result.
7. Comparison.
8. Supposition or Concession.

COMPLEX SENTENCE

Each part contains a Subject and a Predicate of its own, and forms part of a large
sentence. Each part is therefore a Clause.
We further notice that the Clause, They rested, makes good sense by itself, and hence
could stand by itself as a complete sentence. It is therefore called the Principal or Main
Clause.
The Clause, when evening came, cannot stand by itself and make good sense. It is
dependent on the Clause, they rested. It is therefore called a Dependent or Subordinate
Clause.
A sentence, such as the fourth, is called a Complex Sentence.

COMPOUND SENTENCE

A sentence, such as the second, which is made up of Principal or Main Clauses, is called
a Compound Sentence.

A Compound sentence is one made up of two or more Principal or Main Clauses.

SIMPLE SENTENCE

We see that sentence 1 has only one Subject and one Predicate, Such a sentence is called
a Simple Sentence.
Defination: - A Simple sentence is one which has only one Subject and one Predicate.

Noun Clauses

The first group of words, to get a prize, does not contain a Subject and a Predicate of its
own. It is therefore a phrase. This phrase is object of the verb expect and hence does the
work of a Noun. It is therefore a Noun Phrase.
The second group of words, that I shall get a prize, contains a Subject and a Predicate of
its own. It is therefore a clause. This Clause is the object of the verb expect and so does
the work of a Noun. We therefore call it a Noun Clause,
Now examine the sentence.
That you have come pleases me.
Here the Clause, That you have come, is the Subject of the verb pleases.
It therefore does the work of a Noun, and is what we call a Noun Clause.
Def :- A Noun Clause is a group of words which contains a Subject and a Predicate of its
own, and does the work of a Noun.

Adjective Clauses

The first group of words, with a broken handle, describes the umbrella; that is, it qualifies
the noun umbrella, and does the work of an Adjective. It is what we call an Adjective
phrase.
The second group of words which has a broken handle, also describes the umbrella and
so does the work of an Adjective. But because it contains a Subject and a Predicate of its
own, it is called an Adjective Clause.
Def:- An Adjective Clause is a group of words which contains a Subject and a Predicate
of its own, and does the work of an Adjective.

Adverb Clauses

It is evident that both the groups of words in italics, in 1 and 2, do the work of an Adverb
as they modify the verb rested, showing when the action was performed.
We at once recognize the first group of words, at sunset, as an Adverb Phrase. Is the
second group of words, when evening came, also-an Adverb Phrase?
No: it is not a Phrase for, unlike a Phrase, it has a Subject (evening) and a Predicate
(came when) of its own, and is thus like a sentence. But though like a sentence it is part
of a sentence.
Such a group of words that forms part of a sentence, and has a Subject and a Predicate of
its own, is called a Clause.
Since the Clause, when evening came, does the work of an Adverb clause.
Def:- An Adverb Clause is a group of words which contains a Subject and a Predicate of
its own, and does the work of an Adverb.

POSITIVE-COMPARATIVE-SUPERLATIVE

Positive -- Comparative -- Superlative
Sweet -- sweeter -- sweetest
Small -- smaller -- smallest
Tall -- taller -- tallest
Bold -- bolder -- boldest
Clever -- cleverer -- cleverest
Kind -- kinder -- kindest
Young -- younger -- youngest
Great -- greater -- greatest
When the Positive ends in e, only r and st are added.
Brave -- braver -- bravest
Fine -- finer -- finest
White -- whiter -- whitest
Large -- larger -- largest
Able -- abler -- ablest
Noble -- nobler -- noblest
Wise -- wiser -- wisest
When the Positive ends in j, preceded by a consonant, the y is changed into i before
adding er and est.
Happy -- happier -- happiest
Easy -- easier -- easiest
Heavy -- heavier -- heaviest
Merry -- merrier -- merriest
Wealthy -- wealthier -- wealthiest

PARTS OF SPEECH

1. Noun.
2. Adjective.
3. Pronoun.
4. Verb.
5. Adverb.
6. Preposition.
7. Conjunction.
8. Interjection.

9. A Noun is a word used as the name of a person, place, or thing; as, Akbar was a great
King.
Kolkata is on the Hooghly.
The rose smells sweet.
The sun shines bright.
His courage won him honour.

Note: The word thing includes (i) all objects that we can see, hear, taste, touch, or smell;
and (ii) something that we can think of, but cannot perceive by the senses.
10. An Adjective is a word used to add something to the meaning of a noun; as,
He is a brave boy.
There are twenty boys in this class.
11. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as,
John is absent, because he is ill.
The book are where you left them

12. A Verb is a word used lo express an action or state; as
The girl wrote a letter to her cousin.
Kolkata is a big city.
Iron and copper are useful metals.
13. An Adverb is a word used to add something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb; as,
He worked the sum quickly.
This flower is very beautiful.
She pronounced the word quite correctly.
14. A Preposition is a word used with a noun or a pronoun to show how the person or
thing denoted by the noun or pronoun stands in relation to something else; as,
There is a cow in the garden.
The girl is fond of music.
A fair little girl sat under a tree.
15. A Conjunction is a word used to join words or sentences; as,

Rama and Hari are cousins.
Two and two make four.
I ran fast, but missed the train.
16. An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feel ing; as,
Hurrah! We have won the game. Alas! She is dead.
17. Some modern grammars include determiners among the parts of speech. Determiners
are words like a, an, the, this, that, these, those, every, each, some, any, my, his, one, two,
etc., which determine or limit the meaning of the nouns that follow. In this book, as in
many traditional grammars, all determiners except a, an and the are classed among
adjectives.
18. As words are divided into different classes according to the work they do in
sentences, it is clear that we cannot say to which part of speech a word belongs unless we
see it used in a sentence.
They arrived soon after. (Adverb)
They arrived after us. (Preposition)
They arrived after we had left. (Conjunction)

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

When we make a sentence:
(1) We name some person or thing; and
(2) Say something about that person or thing.

In other words, we must have a subject to speak about and we must say or predicate
something about that subject.

In other words, we must have a subject to speak about and we must say or predicate
something about that subject.

Simile

Simile- In a Simile a comparison is made between two objects of different kinds
which have however at least one point in common.

The Simile is usually introduced by such words as like, as or so. Examples:-
1. The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold.
2. The righteous shall flourish as the palm tree.
3. As the hart panteth after the water-brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee, O God.
4. Words are like leaves: and where they most abound,
Much fruit of sense beneath is rarely found.
5. How far that little candle throws his beams !
So shines a good deed in a naughty world.
6. Life is as tedious as a twice-told tale
Vexing the dull ear of a drowsy man.
7. Thy soul was like a star, and dwelt apart:
Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea.
8. O my Love's like a red, red rose
That's newly sprung in June;
O my Love's like the melodie.
That's sweetly played in tune.
Note:- A comparison of two things of the same kind is not a Simile

Metaphor

 A Metaphor is an implied Simile. It does not, like the Simile, state that
one thing is like another or acts as another, but takes that for granted and proceeds as if
the two things were one.
Thus, when we say, 'He fought like a lion' we use a Simile, but when we say, 'He was a
lion in the fight', we use a Metaphor.
Examples:-
1. The camel is the ship of the desert.
2. Life is a dream.
3. The news was a dagger to his heart.
4. Revenge is a kind of wild justice.
Note 1:- Every Simile can be compressed into a Metaphor and every Metaphor can be
expanded into a Simile.

Personification

In Personification inanimate objects and abstract notions are
spoken of as having life and intelligence.
Examples:-
1. In Saxon strength that abbey frowned.
2. Laughter holding both her sides.
3. Death lays his icy hand on kings.
4. Pride goeth forth on horseback, grand and gay,
But Cometh back on fool, and begs its way.

Apostrophe

An Apostrophe is a direct address to the dead, to the absent, or to a
personified object or idea. This figure is a special form of Personification.
Examples:-
1. Milton ! thou should'st be living at this hour.
2. O Friend ! I know not which way I must look
For, comfort,
3. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean-roll !
4. O death ! where is thy sting ? O grave ! where is thy victory ?
5. O liberty, what crimes have been committed in thy name ?
6. Wave, Munich, all thy banners wave,
And charge with alt thy chivalry !
7. O judgement! thou art fled to brutish beasts.
8. O Solitude ! where are the charms
That sages have seen in thy face ?

Hyperbole

In Hyperbole a statement is made emphatic by overstatement

Examples:-
1. Here's the smell of blood still; all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little
hand.
2. Why, man, if the river were dry, I am able to fill it with tears.
3. O Hamlet ! thou hast cleft my heart in twain.

Euphemism

Euphemism consists in the description of a disagreeable thing by an
agreeable name.
Examples:-
1. He has fallen asleep (i.e., he is dead).
2. You are telling me a fairy tale (i.e., a lie).

Antithesis

In antithesis a striking opposition or contrast of words or sentiments is
made in the same sentence. It is employed to secure emphasis.
Examples:-
1. Man proposes, God disposes.
2. Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.
3. Better fifty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay.
4. Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice.
5. Speech is silver, but silence is golden.
6. To err is human, to forgive divine.
7. Many are called, but few are chosen.
8. He had his jest, and they had his estate.
9. The Puritans hated bear-baiting, not because it gave pain to the bear, but because it
gave pleasure to the spectators.
10. A man's nature runs either to herbs or weeds; therefore, let him season ably water the
one and destroy the other.

Oxymoron

Oxymoron is a special form of Antithesis, whereby two contradictory
qualities are predicted at once of the same thing.
Examples:-
1. His honour rooted in dishonour stood.
And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true.
2. So innocent arch, so cunningly simple.
3. She accepted it as the kind cruelty of the surgeon's knife.

Epigram

An Epigram is a brief pointed saying frequently introducing antithetical
ideas which excite surprise and arrest attention.
Examples:-
1. The child is father of the man.
2. A man can't be too careful in the choice of his enemies.
3. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.
4. In the midst of life we are in death.
5. Art lies in concealing art,
6. He makes no friend, who never made a foe

Irony

Irony is a mode of speech in which the real meaning is exactly the opposite
of that which is literally conveyed.
Examples:-
1. No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you.
2. The atrocious crime of being a young man, which the honourable gentle man has, with
such spirit and decency, charged upon me. I shall neither attempt to palliate nor deny.
3. Here under leave of Brutus and the rest
(For Brutus is an honourable man:
So are they all, all honourable men)
Come I to speak in Caesar's funeral.
He was my friend, faithful and just to me;
But Brutus says he was ambitious,
And Brutus is an honourable man.

Pun

A Pun consists in the use of a word in such a way that it is capable of more
than one application, the object being to produce a ludicrous effect.
Examples:-
1. Is life worth living?-It depends upon the liver.
2. An ambassador is an honest man who lies abroad for the good of his country.

Metonymy

In Metonymy (literally, a change of name) an object is designated by
the name of something which is generally associated with it.
Some familiar examples:-
The Bench, for the judges.
The House, for the members of Lok Sabha.
The laurel, for success.
Red-coats, for British soldiers.
Bluejackets, for sailors.
The Crown, for the king.

Synecdoche

In Synecdoche a part is used to designate the whole or the whole to
designate a part.
(i) A part used to designate the whole; as,
Give us this day our daily bread (i.e., food),
All hands (i.e., crew) to the pumps.
Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.
A fleet of fifty sail (i.e., ships) left the harbour.
All the best brains in Europe could not solve the problem.
He has many mouths to feed.
(ii) The whole used to designate a part; as,
England (i.e., the English cricket eleven) won the first test match against Australia

Transferred Epithet

In this figure an epithet is transferred from its proper word to
another that is closely associated with it in the sentence.
Examples:-
1. He passed a sleepless night.
2. The ploughman homeward plods his weary way.
3. A lackey presented an obsequious cup of coffee.

Litotes

In Litotes an affirmative is conveyed by negation of the opposite, the effect
being to suggest a strong expression by means of a weaker. It is the opposite of
Hyperbole.
Examples:-
1. I am a citizen of no mean (= a very celebrated) city.
2. The man is no fool (= very clever).
3. I am not a little (= greatly) surprised.

Interrogation

Interrogation is the asking of a question not for the sake of getting an
answer, but to put a point more effectively.
This figure of speech is also known as Rhetorical Question because a question is asked
merely for the sake of rhetorical effect.

Examples:-
1. Am I my brother's keeper?
2. Do men gather grapes of thorns, or figs of thistles?
3. Shall I wasting in despair.
Die because a woman's fair?
4. Who is here so vile that will not love his country?
5. Breathes there the man with soul so dead
Who never to himself hath said.